Brutus from Julius Caesar

The World of Arts Gwen Herat

ARTS: The well-know Roman General and statesman, Julius Caesar was assassinated at the height of his popularity and power by few senators who feared he had become too powerful and decided to end his ambition of becoming the Emperor of Rome: They stabbed him 23 times in 44 BC.

'But I am constant as the northern star

Of whose true-fix'd and resting quality

There is no fellow in the firmament... - Act III Scene 1.

But among this powerful faction of senators whose growing fears of Caesar's power was tormenting them, one that remained aloof was Marcus Brutus whom Caesar favoured for his bravery. One stormy night when Caesar had returned from some festival games with a soothsayer warning him of the Ides of March, Cassius and Casca plotted to win over Brutus to their rebel party.

With persuation Brutus once won over, receives Casca and Cassius with other conspirators in his garden and Caesar's murder, is plotted and planned for the next morning. Portia, Casca's daughter and Brutus's wife observes his unrest. She, a true and honourable wife, is proud, loving and brave. She knows for a fact that Brutus is a liberal idealist at war with himself and chides him.

...'Am I yourself

But as it were, in sort of limitation

To keep with you at meals, comfort your bed,

And talk to you sometimes.'

- Act II Scene 1.

In the meantime, Calpurnia, Caesar's wife attempts to prevent Caesar from going to the Capitol without success.

Caesar: 'The Ides of March are come'

Soothsayer: 'Ay Caesar but not gone'.

- Act III Scene 1

Brutus steps into the forum and tell the mob his reasons. Next, Mark Antony who is permitted to speak, arouses the mob with his passionate dialogue, along with calculated irony and along with Caesar's great-nephew. Octavius and the feeble Lepidus form a triumvirate against the conspirators.

It is at this point that Brutus comes into focus. He quarrels with the firebrand Cassius in their camp at Sardis and later the quarrel is resolved. Cassius learns that Portia, Brutus's wife, has committed suicide in Rome. At the Capitol, the conspirators surround Caesar and stabs him and as he falls, he is shocked seeing Brutus;

Caesar: Brute? And Caesar dies

Act III Scene 1.

Brutus: 'Soft, who comes here; A friend of Antony's

Servant: Thus Brutus did my master bid me kneel

Thus did Mark Antony bid me fall down

And, being prostrate, thus he had me say

Brutus is noble, wise valiant and honest

Caesar was mighty, bold royal and loving

Say I love Brutus and I honour him

Say, I fear Caesar, honour him and lov'd him

If Brutus will vouchsafe that Antony,

May safely come to him, and be resolved

How Caesar hath deserv'd to its death....... - ACT III Scene I.

The conspirators decide that the armies would meet at Philippe and the ghost of Caesar appears to Brutus and announces that he too will be there. However, Cassius believing that the final battle was lost, orders his servants to stab him while Brutus falls on his own sword and dies. Antony who knew right through of Caesar's love for Brutus and the dependence of his strength as an army chief, pays tribute to his foe.

'Thus was the noblest Roman of them all

All the conspirators, save only he

Did that they did in envy of great Caesar'

Julius Caesar was a favourite tragedy for the stage with each producer placing emphasis on his own individual character with Brutus being the priority. The great man who lent his name to the play, plays but a small insignificant part and hence the focus is placed on the one who destroyed him.

The first recorded staging of this play was at the Globe in 1599. Poet, Leonard Digges in 1640 wrote on Brutus and Cassius and that was more than a century from the Restoration. John Phillip Kemble acted Brutus in 1812 and 1817 after which many English actors took on the role of Brutus. A version at the Old Vic in 1930 and yet another in 1838, kept Brutus as the central character in the play even over Mark Antony who had the choicest of dialogue.

This tragedy first arrived in America in 1771 in South Carolina and after that many frequent revivals and among them, Edwin Boothe acted Brutus magnificently.

Still later in 1871 a surprisingly fanatical Brutus was played by Richard Manfield. So demanding and fiery was his portrayal he was fondly called 'Brutus'. At the New York Shakespeare Festival, John Wilkes Boothe played Brutus once again.

Many films followed beginning from the silent days and the most valuable production was done in 1953 with Marlon Brando as Mark Antony. In another version filmed in 1969 had Jason Robards as Brutus while a BBC production in 1978 Brutus was acted by Richard Pasco and literary critics raved about his portrayal.

A Patriot

Armed with a Degree in Sinhala from the Sri Jayawardanapura University Nilar N. Cassim set foot on to a literary quarter which most of his predecessors belonging to his community, at one time walked faltering through.

Prasad Abu Bakr

PERSONALITY: A student of Rahula Vidyalaya Matara, Nilar N. Cassim has patronised the Sinhala literary scene as a young school going youth by contributing as a pocket cartoonist at the time.

His love for poetry drew him into writing poetry and submitting many of them to some of the country's leading Sinhala newspapers. It was not until he left the Sri Jayawardanapura University that young Nilar started to pour his heart and soul out on to paper.

As a young song writer it was not easy for Nilar to persuade top singers to utilise him. As in any other business in the stream of arts too you can go places only if the top names look and use your work. For Nilar it was a great struggle as many song writers that dawn upon the Sinhala music scene even today.

Even though many Muslims have contributed their talents to the Sinhala music field in the very early days it is rarely that someone of Nilar N. Cassim's magnitude dawned in that area. Mohamed Ghouse, T.F. Lateef, Mohamed Salhi and a few others worked as music directors while Harun Lantra, Mohideen Baige came to be known as singers. The latter's son Ishak Baige is currently carrying on in his father's footsteps quite successfully.

Another obstacle for Nilar to make it too quick would have been his withdrawal from composing rhyme to popular tunes. His compositions were more on subjects that pertained to romance, on classical terms and matters that appeared to hinder society or threaten nature. Takers for those compositions were far and few, for the few established singers at the time the newcomer was not an attractive option.

With a journey through a rustic and difficult path the youthful composer who has a record of composing over 350 songs to date celebrated the launch of the first CD and book of verse containing a number of his popular songs at the BMICH recently. It was aptly called 'Kiri Kodu Sithata', a song that became a hit overnight and brought the composer under a different light. His feel for youth and romance that captivates us all at one time or other is what Nilar has so fascinatingly conveyed to the listener.

Talking of 'Kiri Kodu Sithata' (which is due to be telecast over Rupavahini on Sunday, March 5 at 10.00 pm) the show had Nilar's stamp firmly endorsed over it in form of simplicity. With choreographed segments of song and dance the show was well patronised by some of the leading names of the local literary scene -- Premasiri Khemadasa, Sunil Ariyaratne, W.D. Amaradeva and A.T. Ariyaratne.

There were glimpses of outstanding moments that evening at the BMICH where everybody ranging from song writers to filmstars patronised the show, probably for the good man Nilar N. Cassim has been throughout his involvement with the arts and the people he came in contact during his journey to this point. In fact, at one point it made one wonder if the entire show was more a tribute to all those people rather than for Nilar's achievements.

His devotional words in praise of late Malini Bulathsinghala, who incidentally used some of the lyricist's compositions at the beginning of his career while she was a top artiste, was a moving gesture.

The many songs written by him and performed that evening, accentuating the need for social harmony, against the backdrop of ethnic strife that we are crippled with today surfaced noticeably, specially the one sung by 'Siha Shakthi' touching on Islamic values and ways, which also proved that his involvement with his community still stands intact.

Nilar N. Cassim's 'hand in glove' involvement with the cultural bindings of our country should be cited as an example to all young people, who are mostly brainwashed by their elders, who lead them to grow cooped-up surrounded by false ethnic and religious arrogance. Nilar's work is proof that whatever faith or cast we are born, Sri Lanka will remain our home and nowhere in the world will we ever be able to beat that feeling.

The Kandyan Convention of 1815

Dr. K.D.G. Wimalaratne, Retired Director, National Archives

HISTORY: The Kandyan Convention was held on 2nd March, 1815, 191 years ago. This Convention or the Kandyan Treaty was the instrument which ceded the Kingdom of Kandy to the British Government, thus ending the independence of that Kingdom preserved for over a period of three hundred years, withstanding the onslaught of two colonial powers. The discovery of one of its original copies shed new light in respect of the signatures appearing therein and the events leading to the signing of the Treaty.

When Governor Brownrigg declared war against the King of Kandy on 10th January, 1815, the King disposed his personal and state treasures. His regalia, the royal jewels, throne and footstool were carried away from Kandy.

The eye witness accounts of John Doyly, Capt. de Bussche, Dr. Henry Marshall, William Tolfrey and Major Willerman reveal that, when the British armies entered Kandy, the city was in flames and there was no trace of a human being - all had fled for safety into the interior.

The Royal flag or the standard was captured by the British troops and it was dispatched on 25th February, 1815, through the Governor's son Major Brigg to be placed at the feet of the Prine Regent in Britain.

What happened on 2nd March, 1815 According to the contemporary sources available, the Kandyan Convention was only read and explained to the Sinhalese Chiefs and people who assembled at the Audience Hall. When it was read in public and unanimously adopted by the Chiefs, the British flag was hoisted for the first time in Kandy to mark the establishment of the British Dominium in the Kandy and Provinces.

Then, when was the Kandyan Convention or the Treaty signed? Could the Sinhalese Chiefs sign it on March 2nd, 1815? It should be noted that the chiefs who signed the Convention were formerly appointed to their respective posts by the Governor only on March 3rd, 1815. If we examine the contemporary British sources carefully, it could be clearly and definitely shown that the Kandyan Convention was not signed on the 2nd of March, 1815.

The Buletin issued by the British Government on 10.03.1815 which appeared on 15.3.1815 states that the Convention was signed on March 10 in duplicate by the Adigars and Dissawes present. If we are to rely on D'oyly for the events of these crucial days, he also corroborates the date given in the bulletin.

As there are no Sinhalese sources in order to gather any reliable information of the events leading to the signing of the Convention, we are compelled to rely on the contemporary sources available on the British side. These British sources would amply justify that what took place on the 2nd of March was only the reading out and explaining the 12 clauses of the Convention.

Governor Bowrigg gave another audience on the 10th to the Priests of Malwatte and Asgiriya. Here, he assured that Buddhism and its properties and places of worship will be protected.

On this day His Excellency the Governor, Molligoda, Pilimatalawe (Second Adigar and Dissawe of Sabaragamuwa) Monarawila, Keppetipola, Dullewe Ratwatte, Molligoda (Dissawe of three Korales) signed the Convention on March 18.

It is interesting to note that the signature of Ehelepola seen in the original copy of the Convention discovered differs from all the other signatures found in the letters written by him until his death in 1829.

How could one explain this difference? It is interesting to note that Ehelepola affirmed his signature to the Convention not because he was officially found as he did not hold any post under the British Government, but was respected by the British on the most influential Sinhala Chief at that time.

Is it possible that Ehelepola purposely signed the Convention in a different style to avoid himself being called a betrayer of the Sinhala nation? Did he sign because the Governor compelled him to sign?

Or is it possible that he never signed the Convention and someone else copied his signature erroneously? One could also come to a conclusion that the variation of his signature is due to writing on paper for the first time with a goose quill dipped in ink would have been a difficult task for a person who habitually wrote on palm leaf with an iron Stylus for a long time. The signatures of Molligoda, Dullewe and Galagoda appearing in a petition of 8 December, 1832 would also show that they also differ from what appear in the original copy of the Convention.

The Kandyan Chiefs and Bhikkus agreed to the Kandyan Convention as it included Clauses protecting their religion, customs and privileges. The fifth clause relating to Buddhism read that "the religion of Buddhoo, professed by the Chiefs and inhabitants of these provinces is declared inviolable and its rites and Ministers and Places of Worship are to be maintained and protected."

The Sinhala version of this clause is slightly different. It says not only the protection and maintenance of Buddhism and Buddhist temples but also "Devagama" (Hinduism) and "Devales" or Hindu temples. However, it must be pointed out that the fifth clause of the Kandyan Convention extended the protection to Hinduism also.

The Kandyan Convention was a great victory for the British, which marked the further expansion and consolidation of the British colonial empire in South Asia. For the Kandyan chiefs and bhikkus, it appeared as an inviolable guarantee of their privileges and religion.

The Convention became part of the law of the Kandyan provinces only by a proclamation of the Governor. In accordance with the colonial constitutional law, it was regarded and accepted that the articles of peace by which a colony is ceded are sacred and inviolable according to the true intent and meaning. Nevertheless, in practice, this was never honoured by the British.

The clause eight of the Kandyan Convention, the British Crown reserved the prerogative right to make amendments and laws not contrary to the clauses in the treaty of cession. The Kandyans erred in thinking that the clauses of the Kandyan Convention could never be abrogated and the provision never be broken.

The British thought otherwise. While the Kandyan chiefs and bhikkus were citing the clauses of the Convention to protect their religion and privileges, the British thought that the concessionary clauses were included in the treaty to win over the Kandyans until their position was well established in the Kandyan Kingdom. This was quite evident when on 21st November, 1818 they unilaterally modified the Clauses of the Convention by dropping the word "inviolable" in clause 5 therein.

The history of the nineteenth century Sri Lanka is the sad story of the abrogation by the British the clauses which preserved the religion, customs and rights of the people, which culminated in the dissociation of government with Buddhism in 1853. Accordingly, the Kandyan Convention not only marked the end of the independence of the Sinhalese, but also displayed the treacherous intellects of the British rulers at that time.