Terrorists and radicalised extremists use different means to launch the terrorist attacks. In past decades, they used conventional weapons, but there are also examples for which everyday equipment was weaponised, such as vehicles (e.g. Nice and Berlin Christmas market terrorist attacks) and the pressure cooker bomb at the Boston Marathon.
Thus, chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) weapons coupled with explosives (CBRN&E) might not only be of interest to those seeking to inflict a maximum amount of damage. They may be seen as advantageous by those who aim at creating fear and anxiety in societies as this is more likely to be achieved through the use of CBRN weapons than through conventional weapons.
Since there are readily available, easier means for carrying out terrorist attacks, it is important to consider why terrorists may decide to seek CBRN materials. The potential for drawing significant attention both in traditional and social media will raise the international profile of the terrorist organisation and their ideology. The potential to inflict mass casualties, and inflict significant economic damage can cripple the targeted nation.
The strong symbolism of a successful CBRN terrorist attack, which would demonstrate the power of the group is another reason. The willingness to answer the calls of some clerics has advocated the use of CBRN weapons against Western populations (theological motivation) as in the case of some Islamist extremists. These international regimes can play an important role in reducing the risks of CBRN weapons that are being used. The regimes seek to constrain state actors but, by tackling proliferation, also have an impact on non-state actors.
Three key treaties underpin the international regimes against CBRN weapons – namely, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). In addition, some United Nations Security Council Resolutions have introduced new relevant and binding obligations on States which contribute to addressing the CBRN threat. In this regard, Resolution 1540 has to be mentioned as it aims at preventing non-state actors from acquiring nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons, their means of delivery and related materials. The NPT is the cornerstone of the international regime against the proliferation of nuclear weapons. It came into force in March 1970. It aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, foster the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and further the goal of disarmament. The NPT establishes a safeguards system under the responsibility of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is a multilateral treaty of unlimited duration that bans chemical weapons and requires their destruction within a set period of time. It builds upon the 1952 Geneva Protocol but is more comprehensive than the Protocol which did not outlaw the possession of chemical weapons but only their use. The CWC has been enforced since 1997 and currently has 193 parties.
The main instrument governing biological weapons is the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC). It became effective in 1975 and is of unlimited duration. The BTWC prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, acquisition or transfer of biological agents and toxins ‘of types and in quantities’ that cannot be justified for protective or peaceful use. This treaty bans the development of weapons, equipment, or delivery systems for disseminating such biological agents or toxins. The BTWC declares that States shall address compliance issues through multilateral or bilateral cooperation. States also have the possibility to submit complaints to the United Nations Security Council should they suspect that another State is not respecting its obligations under the BTWC.
In 1994, residents of Matsumoto, Japan, began turning up with symptoms of illness due to nerve gas. There were seven deaths and some 500 injuries. This was a test run for a second attack in 1995 in a Tokyo subway, in which 12 people died and thousands sought medical attention. The attacks came from the apocalyptic Aum Shinrikyo cult, which was trying to develop biological weapons. In the recent past, we saw CBRN weapons used in assassination attempts, against specific individuals. In February 2017, Kim Jong-Nam, the half-brother of North Korea’s leader Kim Jong-un, was assassinated at the Kuala Lumpur Airport in Malaysia with the nerve agent VX. In November 2006, a former Russian spy was killed with radioactive polonium-210, which is believed to have been served in a cup of tea.
In March 2018, the nerve agent Novichok was used in the attempted poisoning of Sergey Skripal and his daughter in Salisbury in the UK. Although they both survived, two members of the public were later exposed to the nerve agent, which had been carelessly discarded in a perfume bottle after the Skripal attack. Interestingly, one of the responding police officers was also contaminated and eventually left his job. Other chemicals used in terrorism are lung-damaging agents such as chlorine, cyanide, and blister agents such as mustard gas, nerve agents such as sarin and VX and incapacitating agents such as BZ. During the Vietnam War, the American Forces used Agent Orange against their enemy. It is believed that they sprayed almost 11 million gallons of this deadly substance from helicopters.
Some observers believe that drones (or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)) may have a significant impact on the capabilities of non-state actors, including those considering the use of CBRN materials for a terrorist attack. Further, drone swarms could be used by non-state actors to conduct CBRN attacks, including on critical infrastructure. The Dark Web enables terrorists to communicate anonymously and securely over the internet. It gives significant opportunities for information-sharing relating to illegal activities, including the production or acquisition of CBRN weapons and the planning of future terrorist attacks.
CBRN in the possession of State agencies must be monitored. Robust risk assessment includes the assessments of how high-risk CBRN materials and facilities are secured, whether staff live and work in a 24/7 security culture, how secure transport systems are, and how secure and efficient information and communications can be exchanged. There will be great concerns about the theft of radioactive materials that could then be associated with acts of terrorism. CBRN threats will present challenges to law enforcement and allied agencies, with multiple actors and scenarios to consider. These threats are infused by rapid technological change and involve threats ranging from natural sources through accidental releases and negligence in the manufacturing and the use of CBRN materials to use by criminals, terrorists or even state actors. In 2020, a massive blast occurred in Beirut when ammonium nitrate exploded killing 220 people, although the reason was attributed to fire.
Radiation and radioactive substances have many beneficial applications, ranging from power generation to use in medicine, industry and agriculture. Activities such as the medical uses of radiation, the operation of nuclear installations, the production, transport and the use of radioactive material, and the management of radioactive waste must therefore be subject to the standards of safety. The IAEA safety standards are a useful tool for contracting parties to assess their performance. In addition to the radioactive and fissile properties, any other dangerous properties of the contents of the package - such as explosiveness, flammability, pyrophoricity, chemical toxicity and corrosiveness, shall be taken into account in the packing, storage and transport in order to be in compliance with the transport regulations for dangerous goods. It is best to transport such chemical/radioactive goods under armed police or military escort as such convoys have been attacked in the past.
A unique case was seen in Goiania, Brazil in 1987. A medical clinic had abandoned its building leaving behind a radiotherapy machine. The machine with its radioactive capsule was now an ‘Orphan Source’- without secure supervision. A man named Roberto Alves illegally entered the building at night and stole the machine. He went home and dislodged the small metal capsule. He broke open the glass casing.
The 93 grammes of Caesium substance gave a blue luminous glow. Roberto and his family were immediately exposed to radiation, but didn’t know. The next day 22 other people touched the deadly Caesium because it had a strange blue glow, and within a few days 249 people were contaminated showing symptoms of serious skin burns, vomiting and dizziness. Later four people died and 42 contaminated houses had to be demolished. All this was due to just 93 grammes of Caesium. This shows how terrorists can keep a small capsule in a crowded public place to create mass panic and death. Such a capsule can be tossed into a water distribution reservoir. Across the world, police must know how to identify and respond to such seemingly harmless objects. The public must be wise not to meddle with unknown chemicals or any suspicious substances.
The recent assassination of Iranian scientist Mohsen Fakhrizadeh by a remote satellite-controlled weapon (machine gun mounted and concealed on a parked truck) presents a new threat. Now convoys of any nature can be attacked from hundreds of miles away, increasing the risk associated with CBRN transport.
The threat of terrorists using chemicals as weapons is a significant global challenge. The Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Member States have recognised the threat posed to the Chemical Weapons Convention by non-state actors, and have underlined that the effective implementation of all provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention is in itself a contribution to global counter-terrorism efforts. The global norm against chemical weapons is not only a legal agreement, but also a moral declaration about the dignity of humanity.
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